Allergy: Gluten-Free and Wheat-Free Diets
When it comes to making bread and cakes, wheat has some remarkable cooking properties that nothing else
can match. Its characteristic proteins, called gluten, form very strong elastic threads. These make a
stringy dough that can be stretched and stretched as the bread rises. As a result, the bubbles of gas
given off by the yeast or baking powder are all embraced by the dough, giving an open, airy consistency
to the finished product.
Have no illusions – without wheat flour you cannot make a crispy baguette or a well-risen cottage loaf.
If you are able to eat rye, then rye flour makes a pretty good substitute, because it also contains
gluten, though not as much as wheat flour. But a gluten-free diet excludes rye too (see p. 177), and
then baking definitely becomes a challenge.
Even on a gluten-free diet, however, you can still make several perfectly edible, even delicious, types
of bread and cake. The secret, especially with bread, is to accept that the texture is going to be
different from wheat-based bread, but to add enough interesting flavours to give the finished product
its own special character. The gluten-free bread you make at home will taste vastly better than the
pale and pappy commercial substitutes – and at a fraction of the price.
Wheat-free and gluten-free bread tends not to keep as well as ordinary bread, so make a batch of small
loaves and freeze some of them. You can slice them before freezing, then extract and defrost a few
slices at a time, as needed. Bread that is not frozen should be kept in a plastic bag in the
refrigerator. Even when kept in this way, the bread gets rather dry and tough after a few days, and
will benefit from being toasted. Try spreading it with butter, margarine or solidified olive oil (see
page 182) before putting it under the grill – this revives bread far better than ordinary toasting.
Pastry-making without wheat is also a challenge (see p. 180) but cakes, biscuits and other sweet items
are much less of a
problem. As long as you accept the limitations of non-wheat flours, cakes can be made perfectly well
using gluten-free flours. With the right culinary tricks, you can even make a light fluffy sponge (see
pp. 180-81).
To thicken sauces and gravy, you can use cornflour or any other non-wheat flour.
If you have an allergy or intolerance to other foods, besides wheat, the recipes here can be adapted
accordingly. For example, commercial egg replacers (see p. 186) can be used in place of eggs, and milk
substitutes (see p. 183) can replace cow’s milk.
Wheat-free diets
This section is for people with an allergy or intolerance reaction to wheat. Those with coeliac disease
should read the section on gluten-free diets.
In devising a successful diet for yourself, you need to take account of two factors:
1 How sensitive are you? If you have a true allergy (see p. 62) to wheat, you may be very sensitive and
need to avoid even the tiniest amount of wheat. But if you are just intolerant of wheat (see pp. 74-6),
you probably won’t react to such small amounts. so you don’t need to be so careful.
2 Are you sensitive only to wheat, or do you also react to related cereals, namely rye, barley and
oats? Some people have to avoid these as well, because of cross-reactions (see p. 14).
Those who are highly sensitive to wheat and have cross-reactions to related cereals, need to follow the
same kind of diet as the most sensitive coeliacs (see Gluten-free diets). Ready-made gluten-free foods
(such as bread and biscuits) can be useful, and they should be safe for you, unless you are
ultra-sensitive.
Those who don’t have any cross-reactions to related cereals can tolerate the following:
• rye bread and rye crackers, as long as they are 100% rye
always double-check. If you buy rye bread from a local bakery, and it is unlabelled, make sure the
staff understand that you must always have 100% rye bread. Ask them to tell you if they ever change the
recipe – and jog their memories about this from time to time.
• beer – as long as it is brewed using barley. Most is, but watch out for German Weissbier, which
is made from wheat.
• oatcakes, as long as they don’t contain wheat flour or bran. Check the label carefully.
Gluten-free diets
A gluten-free diet is more restrictive than a wheat-free diet, since gluten is also found in rye,
barley, triticale and spelt. All these must be carefully avoided.
At one time, this list would have included oats as well, but new research suggests that the proteins
found in oats, called avenin, are sufficiently unlike gluten to be safe for many coeliacs. If you have
coeliac disease, you must have medical approval before eating oats. Only those who are healthy and
doing well on a gluten-free diet should try oats, and they should not eat more than one small serving
(less than 50g/13/4oz) per day. It is vital that the oats are grown, harvested, transported, milled and
packaged separately from all wheat to avoid contamination. See your doctor regularly for check-ups (and
if possible a biopsy) to check that the oats are not causing problems.
Various flours are used to make gluten-free breads, including
flours derived from rice, potatoes, soya beans and buckwheat (not
a true wheat). These are sold in health-food shops, and can also
be bought by mail order. For gram flour, try Indian groceries. There
are also special gluten-free bread mixes available in both health-
food shops and pharmacies, but these almost always contain
soya, and it is best to avoid eating too much soya (see page 71).
coeliacs who are extremely sensitive to gluten, and have to
avoid all trace of it, should be very careful about ready-made food.
These are just some of the unexpected sources of gluten:
• Thickeners and stabilisers sometimes contain traces of gluten. These additives are very widely
used in ready-made foods.
• A number of food additives (including caramel, citric acid, dextrin, mono- and di-glycerides,
gum base, malt, malt flavouring, maltodextrin, maltose, MSG and vegetable gum) are manufactured from
wheat, barley or oats. Although the amount of gluten/avenin they contain is extremely small, it can
affect a few coeliacs.
• Barley enzymes, used to make rice milk, some brands of soya milk, soy sauce and miso, can leave
minute traces of gluten in the finished product. Blue cheese can also contain minute traces of gluten
(see p. 174).
• Whisky and gin – both grain-based spirits – can contain gluten. So may distilled white vinegar.
These will only affect the most sensitive coeliacs, whereas beer must be avoided by all coeliacs, since
it is made from barley.
• Composite ingredients in ready-made food are covered by the 25% rule (see p. 174), and
frequently contain wheat.
• Wheat flour may be used as an aid to food preparation, leaving tiny residues in the food (see
p. 174).
• Non-wheat flour may be delivered to the factories, or transferred from one area to another,
through hoppers or vacuum tubes that have previously been used for wheat flour. Very low levels of
contamination can occur in this way, sufficient to affect those coeliacs who are extremely sensitive.
This is one problem with gluten-free foods (see below), unless they are made in dedicated gluten-free
factories.
• Products labelled ‘gluten-free’ may not be suitable for the most sensitive coeliacs. Testing
for very small amounts of gluten is difficult, and the international standard set by the FAO/WHO (not
more than 200 parts per million) is dictated by what can be accurately measured, and therefore policed.
Many countries (e.g. Sweden and the United States) feel that the permitted level of gluten should be
lower, and have set their own standards. These higher standards can be achieved by careful control of
the production methods.
There is a great deal of useful information about gluten on the
Internet, but there is also some very misleading information on one
particular website. It is advisable to consult several different sites.
Wheat-free baking powder
Some brands of baking powder contain a little wheat flour. You can make a wheat-free version by mixing
60g (2oz) sodium bicarbonate with 125g (41/2oz) cream of tartar and 60g (2oz) of a non-wheat flour.
Sieve together very thoroughly.
Brown bread
This mixture of buckwheat and potato flour makes a light-textured loaf that also toasts well.
PREPARATION TIME: 15 minutes, plus about 1 hour rising time
COOKING TIME: about 35 minutes
MAKES: 1 large loaf
250g (9oz) buckwheat flour
250g (9oz) potato flour 1 tsp salt
1 sachet easy-blend yeast
25g (1oz) butter
1 tbsp black treacle 1 large egg, beaten
Mix the flours, salt and yeast in a large bowl and rub in the butter. Dissolve the treacle in 225ml
(8fl oz) hand-hot water. Add this and the egg to the flour, and mix to a soft dough. Transfer to a
buttered 900g (21b) loaf tin, wrap in a polythene bag and leave in a warm place for about 1 hour – or
until the mixture has risen to the top of the tin.
Bake in a preheated oven at 220°C/ 425°F/gas mark 7 for about 35 minutes until risen and firm to the
touch. Remove from the tin and tap the base – it should sound hollow. If not, return to the oven for a
further 5 minutes. Cool in the tin for 10-15 minutes.
Variations: many different kinds of flavourings can be added to this bread. Try seeds such as poppy
seeds, mustard seeds, caraway seeds and onion seeds (Indian stores usually stock these with their
spices). Sunflower seeds and sesame seeds – either plain or lightly toasted – are also good. A
combination of black olives, sun-dried tomatoes and a pinch of mixed herbs makes a Mediterranean -style
bread.
Seeded rice bread
This makes a delicious, ‘nutty’, textured loaf that is yeast-free as well as wheat-free. It toasts
quite well.
PREPARATION TIME: 30 minutes COOKING TIME: 40 minutes MAKES: 1 small loaf
150g (5′12oz) brown rice, well rinsed
100g (31,2oz) rice flour 100g (3V2oz) fine oatmeal
1 tsp wheat-free baking powder
1 tsp salt
50g (13/4oz) sunflower seeds
25g (1oz) linseed
1 large, slightly under-ripe pear. peeled, cored and coarsely grated
2 large eggs, beaten
2 tbsp vegetable oil
4 tbsp buttermilk, live natural yogurt, milk or milk substitute
Cook the rice in plenty of boiling water for 15-20 minutes until tender. Drain thoroughly and cool
slightly.
Preheat the oven to 200°C/400°F/gas mark 6.
Combine all the ingredients in a large bowl, then transfer to a well-oiled 450g (1 lb) loaf tin and
bake for about 40 minutes, until slightly risen and golden, and firm to the touch. Cool slightly, then
turn out onto a wire rack and leave until completely cold. Serve cut into thick slices.
Banana loaf
This semi-sweet bread is yeast-free as well as gluten-free. It is good for packed lunches – and it
toasts well.
PREPARATION TIME: 10 minutes COOKING TIME: about 1 hour MAKES: 1 large loaf
4 medium ripe or under-ripe bananas 300g (10′,12oz) brown rice flour, sieved 100g (3112oz) butter,
softened
2 tbsp wheat-free baking powder 2 large eggs
225ml (Bfl oz) milk or soya milk
Butter and line the base of a 900g (21b) loaf tin. Peel and cut up the bananas and place in a food
processor with the remaining ingredients. Blend thoroughly, then transfer the mixture to the prepared
tin Bake in a preheated oven at 180 350°F/gas mark 4 for about 1 hour until risen and firm to the
touch. Cool in the tin then turn out onto a wire rack and leave to cool completely.
Rich herb bread
This is useful for those who have to avolo yeast as well as wheat/gluten.
PREPARATION TIME: 20 minutes COOKING TIME: 30-40 minutes MAKES: 1 small loaf
1108 (4oz) gram or chickpea flour
1 tsp syrup or honey
2 tbsp olive oil
1 tsp salt
1 unripe pear, peeled and grated
200m1 (7fl oz) boiling water
2 eggs
V2 onion, finely chopped
fresh herbs (thyme, tarragon or marjoram)
Mix the first five ingredients, then pour on the boiling water. Separate the eggs, beat the yolks
thoroughly and add to the flour mixture when It has cooled, along with the onion and herbs. This
mixture should now be the consistency of double cream. If too thick, add a little more water.
Whisk the egg whites until they will stand in soft peaks. Carefully fold them into the flour mixture.
Pour into a well-greased loaf tin and cook at 180 - C/ 350°F/gas mark 4 for 30-40 minutes.
Seeded rice bread Pressed prune and walnut bread
Crispy millet baps
Tasty and filling, these are popular with children. They make no pretence to be bread but are an
excellent substitute for breakfast toast or a lunchtime sandwich. They are free from yeast, milk and
eggs, as well as wheat.
PREPARATION TIME: 30 minutes COOKING TIME: about 20 minutes MAKES: about 20 small baps
225g (Boz) millet seeds
1 tsp salt
150g (5′,12oz) peanut butter (or cashew, pecan or another nut butter)
1 tsp sesame seeds, toasted until golden
oil for frying
Wash the millet and soak overnight. Wash again to remove the starch, drain and add 600ml (1 pint) water
plus the salt. Boil over a low heat for 20 minutes, or until the water is absorbed.
While still hot add the nut butter and sesame seeds. Mix together well using a potato masher to break
up the millet. Take egg-sized lumps of the mixture, roll into a ball between the palms of your hands,
then squash into a flattish shape. It is vital to do this while the mixture is still warm.
Fry the baps in oil over a low heat, for about 20 minutes, or until the outside is golden and crunchy.
(They can also be frozen, and then fried from frozen, for a quick meal.) Serve with fruit or a salad.
Savoury spiced pancakes
This variation on a traditional drop scone makes a good substitute for bread. The pancakes are
delicious served warm from the pan. When cold, they may be reheated in a moderate oven.
1008 (3112oz) gram flour
1008 (3 72oz) rice flour
1 tsp wheat-free baking powder
1 tbsp ground cumin
large pinch of salt
1 large egg
300mi (112 pt) coconut milk
vegetable oil for frying
To serve:
Skinned and chopped fresh tomato mixed with a little freshly chopped coriander, or fried mushrooms with
chopped spring onion and parsley moistened with a little crbme fraiche.
Mix the dry ingredients together in a bowl then beat in the egg and coconut milk to give a thick
batter. Set a large non-stick frying pan or griddle over medium heat. Generously oil the surface of the
pan then drop well-spaced tablespoons of the mixture into the pan.
Cook until the edges of the drop scones start to form bubbles and the base of each is golden, then
carefully turn and cook on the second side until golden. Keep warm, covered with a clean tea towel,
while you make the rest.
Serve warm, spread with butter or topped with one of the savoury mixtures.
Variations: for sweet drop scones omit the cumin and add 25g (I oz) caster sugar and either a sweet
spice such as cinnamon, or the finely grated zest of 1 lemon or orange.
Pressed prune and walnut bread
Based on a traditional Spanish recipe, this is delicious served with cheese, or as a snack on its own.
PREPARATION TIME: 10 minutes, plus overnight COOKING TIME: 45 minutes MAKES: 1 x 18cm (7in) loaf
500g (1 lb 2oz) ready-to-eat pitted prunes 100g (3%2oz) walnut or pecan halves 50g (13/4oz) brown rice
flour
1 large egg, beaten
Place all the ingredients in a bowl and mix together. Press into an oiled 18cm (7in) sandwich tin,
cover with oiled foil and cook in a preheated oven at 170°C/ 325°F/gas mark 3 for 45 minutes. Place a
heavy weight on top and leave until completely cold before unmoulding. Serve cut into thick slices
using a serrated knife.
PREPARATION TIME: 25 minutes MAKES: about 27
Walnut macaroons Lemon surprise pudding
Millet tabbouleh
Tabbouleh is a salad from the Middle East that is traditionally made with cracked wheat. Millet makes a
very tasty wheat-free alternative. This dish can be useful for packed lunches.
PREPARATION TIME: about 40 minutes MAKES: 4-6 servings
175g (6oz) millet 7 tbsp olive oil
3 tbsp lemon juice
3 tbsp each freshly chopped mint and
flat-leaf parsley
2 spring onions, finely chopped
salt and pepper
Place the millet in a saucepan with 1 tbsp oil and cook over medium heat, stirring, for 2-3 minutes
until lightly toasted. Stir in 350ml (12fl oz) boiling water and simmer uncovered for about 20 minutes
until the water is absorbed and the millet seeds are just cooked. Transfer to a bowl, stir in the rest
of the oil and season generously. Stir in the lemon juice and fork it through the mixture. Leave to
cool, then add the herbs and spring onion and stir well.
Variations: add other finely chopped ingredients such as tomato, red pepper or dried apricots.
Wheat-free flan pastry
Make a flan as suggested below, or chill the pastry then grate it roughly over a savoury or sweet pie
filling. For a savoury pie, the grated pastry can be mixed with grated cheese.
PREPARATION TIME: 15 minutes, plus 30 minutes freezing
COOKING TIME: about 20 minutes MAKES: 1 x 20cm (8in) flan case
125g (412oz) fine cornmeal (maize flour) 50g (13/4oz) gram flour
25g (1 oz) arrowroot powder
25g (I oz) ground almonds
75g (23/4oz) butter or baking margarine 1 egg white
Mix the dry ingredients together in a bowl then rub in the butter. Mix to a soft dough with the egg
white. Press the pastry evenly into a 20cm (8in) fluted flan tin and set in the freezer for a minimum
of 30 minutes.
Preheat the oven to 200′C/400′F/gas mark 6 and cook the flan case towards the top of the oven for about
20 minutes, until lightly golden.
Variation: for sweet pastry, add 25g (I oz) caster sugar
Rich cheese biscuits
These crisp biscuits are good to serve with drinks. Store them in an airtight tin.
PREPARATION TIME: 20 minutes COOKING TIME: about 25 minutes MAKES: 20 biscuits
55g (2oz) soya flour
40g (1 V2oz) potato flour
40g (I Y2oz) rice flour
115g (4oz) butter, softened
1158 (4oz) Cheddar cheese, grated
1 large egg, separated
2 tbsp seeds such as celery or poppy
Mix the flours together in a bowl, then work in the butter, cheese and egg yolk to give a firm dough.
Roll into 20 balls. Lightly whisk the egg white and turn the balls in it until lightly coated, then dip
in the seeds to coat lightly.
Space the balls well apart on baking trays and press down firmly to flatten. Bake in a preheated oven
at 200°C/400 T/ gas mark 6 for about 25 minutes until golden. Cool slightly then transfer to a wire
rack. Leave until cold and crisp.
Whisked sponge cake
This cake’s lightness lies in the whisking. A trail of the mixture, falling from the whisks, should
remain visible for at least 30 seconds. Then it’s time to add the flour.
PREPARATION TIME: 25 minutes COOKING TIME: 25-30 minutes MAKES: 1 x 23cm (91n) cake
75g (2314oz) gram flour
50g (13/4oz) cornflour
4 large eggs
125g (4 V2oz) caster sugar
50g (13/4oz) butter, melted
To serve:
jam or lemon curd
whipped cream (optional)
caster sugar
Sift the flours together. Butter a 23cm (9in) spring-release tin and line the base with greaseproof
paper. Using a handheld electric whisk, whisk the eggs and sugar in a heatproof glass bowl over a
saucepan of simmering water for about 10 minutes until thick and mousse-like.
Fold the flour into the egg mixture in 2-3 batches until completely incorporated, then fold in the
butter.
Transfer to the prepared tin and cook in a preheated oven at 190′C/375′F/gas mark 5 for about 25
minutes until risen and golden. Cool slightly then remove from the tin and cool on a wire rack. When
cold, split and fill with jam or lemon curd, and whipped cream if wished. Dust with caster sugar.
Walnut macaroons
These biscuits are good with coffee. Store in an airtight container. If you want, only decorate half of
them with walnut halves, then sandwich together with the other halves using coffee-, chocolate- or
orange-butter cream, or whipped cream. Do this just before serving.
PREPARATION TIME: 15 minutes COOKING TIME: about 45 minutes MAKES: 24
rice paper
2 egg whites
100g (3112oz) golden icing sugar
1008 (3 Y2 oz) walnut pieces, finely
chopped
grated zest and juice of 112 small unwaxed
lemon (if waxed, wash thoroughly in
hot water)
24 walnut halves
Line a large baking tray with rice paper. Whisk the egg whites in a heatproof glass bowl until stiff.
Stir in the icing sugar, chopped walnuts, lemon zest and juice, and stir over a saucepan of simmering
water for about 10 minutes until the mixture is slightly stiffened. Drop well-spaced spoonfuls of the
mixture onto the rice paper and top each with a walnut half.
Bake in a preheated oven at I 50′C/300′F/gas mark 2 for about 45 minutes. They should be risen but
still slightly chewy. Cool on the tray, then trim away the excess rice paper.
Lemon surprise pudding
The surprise is in the two layers. You end up with a creamy lemon sauce topped with a delicate sponge.
PREPARATION TIME: 20 minutes COOKING TIME: about 45 minutes MAKES: 4-6 servings
50g (1314oz) butter
125g (4 Y2oz) caster sugar
2 large eggs, separated
25g (1 oz) cornflour, sieved
25g (1oz) fine cornmeal (maize flour), sieved
finely grated zest and juice of 2 unwaxed lemons (if waxed, wash thoroughly in hot water)
250m1 (9fl oz) milk To serve:
icing sugar
Cream the butter and sugar with 1 tbsp hot water until pale and fluffy. Beat in the egg yolks followed
by the flours. Slowly stir in the lemon zest and juice, and then the milk. The mixture may appear to
have curdled but this is normal.
Whisk the egg whites to form soft peaks, then fold into the lemon mixture. Transfer to a 1 litre (13/4
pint) ovenproof dish and set in a roasting tin. Pour hot water from a kettle around the dish and cook
in a preheated oven at 180°C/350°F/gas mark 4 for about 45 minutes, until risen and just firm to the
touch. Dust with icing sugar and serve immediately.
Apricot and apple Eve’s pudding
This wheat-free Eve’s pudding can be varied by changing the fruit. Try peaches, strawberries or
blackberries instead of the apricots.
PREPARATION TIME: 30 minutes COOKING TIME: about 1 hour MAKES: 4-6 servings
400g can of apricot halves in juice
2 medium cooking apples, peeled and thickly sliced
50g (1314oz) caster sugar
Topping:
125g (472oz) butter, softened
125g (4 Y2oz) caster sugar
2 large eggs
125g (4V2oz) ground almonds mixed with
1 tsp wheat-free baking powder
50g (1 31ioz) flaked almonds
To serve:
pouring cream or whipped cream
Pour the juice from the can of apricots into a saucepan, add the apple and sugar and cook gently for
about 5 minutes, until the apple is softened. Remove from the heat and stir in the apricots. Transfer
to a 1 Iltre (13/4 pint) ovenproof dish.
In a separate bowl, cream the butter and sugar together until pale and fluffy then beat in the eggs one
at a time. Fold in the ground almonds and baking powder. Spread the almond mixture over the fruit and
sprinkle with flaked almonds. Cook in a preheated oven at 180°C/ 350°F/gas mark 4 for about 1 hour
until risen and golden and just firm to the touch. Serve with pouring cream or whipped cream.